| Klezmer | |
|---|---|
| Stylistic origins | Developed in Southeastern Europe, influenced mostly by Romanian music (predominantly from Moldavia, particularly Bessarabia and the Romanian part of Bucovina); Greek, Ukrainian and Turkish music influences are also present |
| Cultural origins | Jewish celebrations, especially weddings, in Eastern Europe |
| Typical instruments | Violin, cymbalom, clarinet, accordion, trombone, trumpet, piano, poyk |
| Mainstream popularity | Rare among non-Jews, well-followed by Jews in the USA, especially following a 1980s revival |
| Regional scenes | |
| Germany — Israel — United States | |
| Other topics | |
| KlezKamp — Klezmer-loshn — KlezKanada | |
|
Israeli music |
|---|
| Religious |
| Contemporary Piyyut · Zemirot · Nigun Pizmonim · Baqashot |
| Secular |
| Dance |
| Israeli folk dancing · Ballet Horah · Hava Nagila Yemenite dancing |
| Israel |
| Hatikvah · Jerusalem of Gold |
| Piyyutim |
| Adon Olam · Geshem · Lekhah Dodi Ma'oz Tzur · Yedid Nefesh · Yigdal |
| Music for Holidays |
Klezmer (Yiddish כליזמר or קלעזמער, pl כליזמר,כליזמרים, from Hebrew כלי זמר — instruments of music) is a musical tradition of the Ashkenazic Jews of Eastern Europe. Played by professional musicians called klezmorim, the genre originally consisted largely of dance tunes and instrumental display pieces for weddings and other celebrations. The genre has its origins in Eastern Europe.
Compared to most other European folk music styles, very little is known about the history of klezmer music, and much of what is said about it must be seen as conjecture.[1] Starting in 2008, "The Other Europeans" project, funded by several EU cultural institutions,[2] spent a year doing intensive field research in Moldavia under the leadership of Alan Bern and scholar Zev Feldman. Their object was to explore Klezmer and Lautari roots and to fuse the music of the two "other European" groups. The resulting band now performs internationally.
Contents |
The term klezmer comes from a combination of Hebrew words: kli, meaning "a useful or prepared instrument, tool, or utensil" and zemer, meaning "to make music"; leading to k'li zemer כְּלִי זֶמֶר, literally "vessels of song" = "musical instrument".
Originally, klezmer referred to musical instruments, and was later extended to refer, as a pejorative, to musicians themselves.[3] From the 16th to 18th centuries older terms such as leyts (clown) gave way.[4] It was not until the late 20th Century that the word was used to identify a musical genre. Early twentieth century recordings and writings most often refer to the style as "Yiddish" music, although it is also sometimes called Freilech music (Yiddish, literally "Happy music"). The first recording to use the term "klezmer" to refer to the music was Andy Statman and Zev Feldman's seminal Jewish Klezmer Music.
Klezmer is easily identifiable by its characteristic expressive melodies, reminiscent of the human voice, complete with laughing and weeping. This is not a coincidence; the style is meant to imitate khazone and paraliturgical singing. A number of dreydlekh (a Yiddish word for musical ornaments), such as krekhts ("sobs") are used to produce this style.
Above all the musical styles which influenced the traditional Klezmer musicians, the Romanian influence seems to be the strongest and most enduring. Traditional Romanian music was heard, adopted and adapted by Klezmer musicians. This fact is reflected in the dance forms found throughout the entire surviving Klezmer music repertoire (e.g., Horas, Doinas, Sirbas and Bulgars etc.).[5]
The Bible has several descriptions of orchestras and Levites making music, but after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, many Rabbis discouraged musical instruments. However, the importance of merrymaking at weddings was not diminished, and musicians came forth to fill that niche, klezmorim. The first klezmer known by name was Yakobius ben Yakobius, a player of the aulos in Samaria in the 2nd century CE. The earliest written record of the klezmorim is in the 15th century. It should be noted that it is unlikely that they played music recognizable as klezmer today since the style and structure of klezmer as we know it today is thought to have come largely from 19th century Bessarabia, where the bulk of today's traditional repertoire was written.
Klezmorim based their secular instrumental music upon the devotional vocal music of the synagogue, in particular cantorial music. Even so, klezmorim — along with other entertainers — were typically looked down on by Rabbis because of their secular traveling lifestyle. Klezmorim often travelled and played with Roma musicians ("lăutari"), since they occupied similar social positions. They had a great influence on each other musically and linguistically (the extensive klezmer argot in Yiddish includes some Roma borrowings).
Klezmorim were respected for their musical abilities and diverse repertoire, but they were by no means restricted to playing klezmer. Christian churches would sometimes ask for their services, and some Italian classical violin virtuosos received their instruction. Local aristocracy held the best klezmer in high regard and often used their services.
Like other professional musicians, klezmorim were often limited by authorities. Ukrainian restrictions lasting into the 19th century banned them from playing loud instruments. Hence musicians took up the violin, tsimbl (or cymbalom), and other string instruments. The first musician to bring klezmer to European concert audiences, Josef Gusikov, played a type of xylophone of his own invention, which he called a "wood and straw instrument", laid out like a cymbalom, and attracted comments from Felix Mendelssohn (highly favourable) and Liszt (condemnatory). Later, around 1855 under the reign of Alexander II of Russia, Ukraine permitted loud instruments. The clarinet started to replace the violin as the instrument of choice. Also, a shift towards brass and percussion happened when klezmorim were conscripted into military bands.
As Jews left Eastern Europe and the shtetls, klezmer has spread throughout the globe, especially to the United States. Initially, not much of the klezmer tradition was maintained by U.S. Jews, there were only a few Yiddish folk singers. In the 1920s the clarinetists Dave Tarras and Naftule Brandwein caused a brief, influential revival, although it has been noted by Hankus Netsky that "few of the performers of this era actually referred to themselves as klezmorim, and the term is found nowhere in any Jewish instrumental recording of the time."[6] The soprano Isa Kremer was a popular exponent of Yiddish song internationally during the first half of the 20th century; notably making several recordings with Columbia Records and appearing often at Carnegie Hall and other major venues in the United states from 1922-1950.[7] As U.S. Jews began to adopt mainstream culture, the popularity of klezmer slowly waned, and Jewish celebrations were increasingly accompanied by non-Jewish music.
While traditional performances may have been on the decline, many Jewish composers who had secured mainstream success, such as Leonard Bernstein and Aaron Copland, continued to be influenced by the klezmeric idioms heard during their youth (as Gustav Mahler had been). Many believe that Gershwin was influenced by the Yiddish of his youth, and that the opening of "Rhapsody in Blue" was a nod to klezmer clarinetting.[8] And, much of Benny Goodman's clarinet style can be interpreted as having been derived from klezmer.
At the same time, non-Jewish composers were also turning to klezmer for a prolific source of fascinating thematic material. Dmitri Shostakovich, in particular, admired klezmer music for embracing both the ecstasy and the despair of human life and quoted several melodies in his chamber masterpieces, the Piano Quintet in G minor, op. 57 (1940), the Piano Trio No. 2 in E minor, op. 67 (1944), and the String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110 (1960).
In the late 1970s there was a klezmer revival in the United States and Europe, led by Giora Feidman, Zev Feldman, Andy Statman, The Klezmorim, and the Klezmer Conservatory Band. They drew their repertoire from recordings and surviving musicians of U.S. klezmer. In 1985 Henry Sapoznik and Adrienne Cooper founded KlezKamp to teach klezmer and other Yiddish music.
Shortly thereafter, in the 1980s, there was a second revival as interest grew in more traditionally inspired performances with string instruments, largely with non-Jews of the United States and Germany. Musicians began to track down older European klezmer, by listening to recordings, finding transcriptions, and making field recordings of the few klezmorim left in Eastern Europe. Key performers in this style are Joel Rubin, Budowitz, Khevrisa, Di Naye Kapelye, The Chicago Klezmer Ensemble, the violinists Alicia Svigals, Steven Greenman[1] and Cookie Segelstein, the flutist Adrianne Greenbaum, and the tsimbl player Pete Rushefsky. Other artists, like Yale Strom used their first-hand research as a foundation for more of a fusion between traditional repertoire and original compositions, as well as incorporating the Rom (Gypsy) music element into the driving style. Bands like Brave Old World, Hot Pstromi and the Klezmatics also emerged during this period.
In the 1990s, musicians from the San Francisco Bay Area also helped revive interest in Klezmer music by taking it into new financial territory. Clarinetist Ben Goldberg played in Bay Area-based Klezmorim, and formed the critically acclaimed New Klezmer Trio with drummer Kenny Wollesen. The New Klezmer trio kicked open the American door for radical experiments with Ashkenazi music and paved the way for John Zorn's Masada, Naftule's Dream, Don Byron's Mickey Katz project and violinist Daniel Hoffman's band Davka. The New Orleans Klezmer All-Stars [2] also formed in 1991 with a mixture of New Orleans Funk, Jazz, and Klezmer styles.
Interest in klezmer was sustained and supported by well-known avant-garde jazz musicians like John Zorn and Don Byron, who sometimes blend klezmer with jazz. Klezmer melodies have also more recently been incorporated into songs by third-wave Ska band Streetlight Manifesto. Singer/songwriter Tomas Kalnoky frequently slips in horn licks with Russian and Jewish origins.
According to Walter Zev Feldman, the klezmer dance repertoire seems to have been relatively uniform across the areas of Jewish settlement in the Russian Empire.[9] Much of the traditional klezmer repertoire was written by professional klezmer musicians in the style of their region or tradition, and a lot of co-territorial music such as non-Jewish folksongs, especially Romanian music (mainly from Moldavia), as well as Ukrainian music and Ottoman music, and the musics of other minorities living in the same areas as Jews in Southeastern Europe such as Crimean Tatars.
Historically, young klezmorim learned songs from their family and their elders in bands. However, there were several breaks in history where this transmission broke down, including mass emigration, but especially the Holocaust, which silenced most of Jewish life and culture in the predominantly Jewish cities and provinces of Europe. Few scions of klezmer dynasties remained in Europe, one notable exception being Leopold Kozlowski of Poland.
Undoubtedly, a lot has been lost of whatever repertoire they played in different regions, especially wedding repertoire, since Jewish weddings would last several days, but technology of the time could only record a few minutes at a time. As well, some recordings may have been made from one area which did not at all represent the klezmer repertoire from other parts of the region. Fortunately, there remained a few older klezmorim, such as Leon Schwartz, Dave Tarras and German Goldenshtayn, who were able to recall some of this repertoire. Also, some transcriptions were done in the 19th century. As well, some ethnomusicological work from Jewish Eastern Europe is still available in print, notably the work of Ukrainian Jewish field researcher Moshe Beregovski.
In the 21st century, klezmer is typically learned from "fake books" and transcriptions of old recordings, although the music was traditionally transmitted and learned by ear.
Most klezmer pieces are intended to be danced to, from fast to slow tempo:
Additionally, there are types not designed for dance:
Most klezmer songs are in several sections, sometimes with each in a different key. Frequently sections alternate between major and minor keys. Klezmer music often uses "folk scales," or scales commonly found in folk music, such as the harmonic minor and modified phrygian. Instrumental songs often follow the type of chord progressions found in Middle Eastern and Greek music, whereas vocal Yiddish songs are often much simpler, and follow a style and chord progressions similar to Russian folk songs.
Freylekhs are often in the form ABCB, which is rare in music. Having a third distinct section is a relatively unique aspect of klezmer music.
A common ending for songs is an upwards chromatic run or glissando, followed by a slow staccato 8-5-1. They may also end with a Coda, a new melodic line that is accompanied by a change in the percussion rhythm and an increase in tempo. It is played all over the world.
Klezmer is generally instrumental, although at weddings klezmorim traditionally accompany the wedding entertainer. A typical 19th century European orchestra would have included a first violin, a contra-violin (or modified 3-stringed viola also called Groyse Fidl [Yid. Big Fiddle], Sekund, Kontra or Zsidó Bratsch [Hun.]),[10] a tsimbl (cimbalom or hammered dulcimer), a bass or cello, and sometimes a flute. The melody is generally assigned to the lead violin, while the remainder providing harmony, rhythm and some counterpoint (the latter usually coming from the second violin or viola). The inclusion of Jews in tsarist army bands during the 19th century led to the introduction of typical military band instruments into klezmer. Brass instruments eventually inherited a counter-voice role, amongst which the French valved cornet and the keyed German trumpet.[11] Modern klezmer instrumentation is more commonly influenced by the instruments of the 19th century military bands than the earlier orchestras.The orchestration employed by Joel Rubin — one of the most experienced and knowledgeable contemporary klezmer musicians — represents a historically justified link with that of contemporary ethnic music ensembles of Romania and Hungary.[12]
Klezmer percussion tended, in early 20th Century recordings, to be minimal, no more than a wood block or snare drum. (The snare drum is the more "authentic" of the two. The use of a wood block by modern klezmorim is the result of an attempt to imitate recordings from the early 20th Century, in which snare drums, whose volume tended to overwhelm the primitive recording equipment of the time, were replaced with quieter instruments.) In Eastern Europe percussion was often provided by a drummer who played a frame drum, or a poyk, sometimes called baraban. A poyk is similar to a bass drum, and often has a cymbal or piece of metal mounted on top. In Bulgaria, Serbia, and Macedonia, sometimes the pikeler would also play in the tapan style, i.e., with a switch in one hand on a thin tight head, and a mallet in the other, on a thicker, looser head.
Some Klezmer revival bands look to loud-instrument klezmer, jazz, and Dixieland for inspiration. Their band is similar to a typical jazz band, with some differences. They use a clarinet for the melody, and make great use of the trombone for slides and other flourishes. When a cymbalom sound is called for, a piano is played with sustain. There is usually a brass instrument ensemble, and sometimes there is a tuba for a bass. Performers in this style include The Klezmatics, Klezmer Conservatory Band and The Maxwell Street Klezmer Band. Other klezmer bands look back to different eras or regions, and attempt to recreate specific styles of klezmer — for example, Budowitz, the Chicago Klezmer Band, Veretski Pass, and the album "Maramoros: the Lost Jewish Music of Transylvania" by the Hungarian band Muzsikas.
Klezmer instrument choices were based, by necessity, on an instrument's portability. Music was required for several parts of the wedding ceremony, which took place in different rooms or courtyards, and the band would be required to relocate quickly from space to space. Further, klezmorim were usually itinerant musicians, who would move from town to town as their services were required. Therefore, instruments which could be held in the hands (clarinet, violin, trumpet) or supported by a neck or shoulder strap (accordion, cimbalom, drum) were favored over those which rested on the ground (cello, bass violin) or needed several people to move (piano).
In America, this trend continued, with hand- or strap-held instruments like guitars, saxophones, and even harmonicas being integrated into klezmer ensembles more than larger instruments. The average American klezmeer wedding band, for instance, uses a portable electronic synthesizer, not a piano.
In its historic form, klezmer was live music designed to facilitate dancing. Hence, the tempo would be altered as dancers tired — or better dancers joined in. Trying to maintain a steady tempo was counterproductive. Vocal songs would also come to a near-halt as the bandleader sang a particularly sad part, perhaps picking up slowly and eventually bursting into happy song once more (this is a feature of many Rom and Russian folk songs as well).
Like other musicians of their time, and many modern Jazz performers, early klezmorim did not rigidly follow the beat. Often they would slightly lead or trail it, giving a lilting sound.
Klezmer is usually played in shteygerim, prayer modes of the synagogue. They are closely related to Greek, Turkish, and other "co-territorial" modes of Southeastern and Central Europe. The following are the names of these modes; the names are taken from the names of familiar prayers that use that mode (imagine an American composer referring to a piece as "a Grand Old Flag" instead of as "a march").
Ahavo Rabboh means "Abounding Love" in Hebrew, and refers to a prayer from the daily morning prayer service (shacharis). It is built on the fifth degree of the harmonic minor scale, with a descending tetrachord to the tonic being the most characteristic final cadence. It is also called the "Freygish", a Yiddish term derived from the German "Phrygisch", or Phrygian mode (specifically, the Phrygian dominant scale). It is considered the mode of supplication.[13] It is similar to the Arabic Hijaz maqam. Most Klezmer makes use of the D Ahavah Rabboh scale (such as Nigun Rikud, Tish Nigun and numerous freylekhs), although there exist some that use other scales.
Mi Shebeirach means "He who blessed" in Hebrew, from the Mi Shebeirach prayer, recited after the honor of being called to the Torah reading. It is also called the Ukrainian, Altered Ukrainian, Doina, or Altered Dorian. It has a raised fourth, and is used often for the doina or dance pieces, like the Odessa Bulgar. When used in combination with the Ahavoh Rabboh scale in the same piece (as in Mayn Shtetl Yas), the Mi Shebeirach section is usually a whole tone below the Ahavoh Rabboh scale (for example, D Ahavoh Rabboh changes to C Mi Shebeirach or vice versa).
Adoyn-y Moloch means "my Lord reigns" in Hebrew. It is common in traditional synagogue services (they are the beginning words of many of the Psalms). It is similar to the Western Mixolydian mode.
Mogen Ovoys means "our forebears' shield" in Hebrew. It is an older mode from the synagogue, derived from the Friday night prayers. It is similar to the Western natural minor scale.
Yishtabach means "it shall become superb" in Hebrew (from the daily morning services). It has a frequent lowering of the 2nd and 5th. It is related to Mogein Ovoys, above.
In the United States the genre morphed considerably as Yiddish-speaking Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe, who arrived between 1880 and 1924,[15] met and assimilated American jazz. During the initial decades after the "Klezmer Revival," this was what most people knew as klezmer, although in the current century musicians have begun paying attention to the "original" pre-jazz traditions as some original revivialists (e.g., Josh Horowitz, Yale Strom, Bob Cohen) spent years doing field research in Eastern/Central Europe. Additionally, late immigrants from the Soviet Union such as German Goldenshtayn brought their surviving repertoires to the United States and Israel in the 1980s.